The Lifelong Effects of ADHD on Personal Development

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is a condition which causes them to have difficulty controlling their behavior and paying attention. Other problem areas are oppositional behavior toward adults and academic failure. These children face many more difficulties in early development than children without the disorder because they face crises with peers, trouble with their education, and tension and frustration in the home environment.

Regarding crises with peers, studies have shown that children that have ADHD had distorted perceptions of their own peer acceptance and rejection, social preferences and social impact. Many children who thought they were well-liked were in fact disliked by "normal" children for reasons directly related to the disorder, such as aggression and hyperactivity. Children with ADHD struggle during their years of education because of their behavior problems which are displayed in front of their peers and teachers.

Research shows that children who are diagnosed with ADHD have a significantly increased risk of becoming substance dependent in adolescence. Many of the characteristic traits and behavior issues of individuals with ADHD contributed to reliance on tobacco, alcohol and illegal substances.

Children with ADHD were also prone to holding inflated positive self perceptions in comparison to others. They are believed to inflate their perception of themselves most in areas which they are lacking due to their disorder. This is problematic for these individuals because they form a false sense of the way others see them and do not function appropriately in social situations.

One of the major problems that children diagnosed with ADHD face is forming healthy relationships with others. It is common for these children to find themselves rejected by others due to the difficult nature of the child's personality. Usually, the child's lack of solid relationships with peers is the cause of adults' frustration in dealing with them. Often, if the child had at least one true friend, some of the areas that he finds difficulty in would be lessened because he had someone that he could rely on and trust.

Results of many past studies show that other children do not find ADHD children as potential companions (Hoza, Mrug, Gerdes, Hinshaw, Bukowski, Gold, Kraemer, Pelham, Wigal, & Arnold, 2005). They tend to seek out children as friends who are mostly easy going. Peers more often associated hyperactive children with "bad kids", rather than "good kids" (Hoza, Mrug, Gerdes, Hinshaw, Bukowski, Gold, Kraemer, Pelham, Wigal, & Arnold, 2005). Factors such as the inability to pay attention and focus is strongly correlated with factors such as poor academic achievement and peer difficulties (Molina & Pelham, 2003).

Another commonality for children with ADHD is their inability to control their emotions and behavior and the problems that result. ADHD in children causes them to vent their frustrations and anger in more public and external ways than children without the disorder. These children are extremely impulsive and what they don't realize is that acting out in inappropriate ways causes them to be rejected and shunned by others who do not understand their reasons for acting out. Aggressive boys that have ADHD tend to inflate their self perception the most in the social and behavioral domains (Hoza, Gerdes, Hinshaw, Arnold, Pelham, Molina, Abikoff, Eptstein, Greenhill, Hechtman, Odbert, Swanson, & Wigal, 2004). The reason that they inflate their self perception is because their outright aggression actually causes people to dislike them but the person with ADHD doesn't realize that it's a problem and sees himself as normal, leading him to think that others like him. This is just one problem that arises because of behavior problem. Another serious issue is that many children with ADHD will grow into substance abusing adolescents and this is partly due to the fact that their behavior leads to social developmental problems. Early expressions of antisocial behavior, such as aggression and other conduct problems in childhood, are well-established prospective predictors of early substance use (Molina & Pelham, 2003).

Other commonalities between individuals with ADHD exist in the way that they cope and deal with stress. ADHD children are much more at risk of developing dependencies on substances as adolescents and adults than children without ADHD. ADHD adolescents were three times more likely to have used at least one hard drug at some point in their life, than normal adolescents (Molina & Pelham, 2003). Polysubstance use, the use of more than one drug at a time, is a higher risk in those with ADHD (Molina & Pelham, 2003). Often the frustrations of growing up with ADHD leads these individuals to release their stress in this unhealthy way.

Another risk for children growing up with ADHD is that due to their tendency to be rejected by friends, they may find their way of coping in becoming friends with the first person who ever shows interest in knowing them. This typically leads children with ADHD into peer groups which are not necessarily safe and healthy. It is possible that as these children are discouraged in their attempts to become friends with more "popular" peers, they will gravitate toward anyone willing to accept them ( Hoza, Mrug, Gerdes, Hinshaw, Bukowski, Gold, Kraemer, Pelham, Wigal, & Arnold, 2005).

Research should continue on the way that ADHD affects children's social development. Although conclusions were drawn, changes will take place over time as teachers and parents become more educated in their methods of controlling these problematic behaviors. Perhaps once these children learn more healthy methods of releasing frustration and anger and ways to stay focused for longer periods of time, they will become more appealing as potential friends to other children.

It is important that for the next study on this topic, children are not confused as to what they are asked to do. They should be asked short, specific questions about their peers with ADHD so that the results will be more accurate. The method and results of the study related to ADHD and adolescent substance use was fairly straightforward and clear. The participants were consistent and since this was a longitudinal study, there is not question as to whether or not the results are accurate. They simply followed these individuals into their adolescence to determine whether their ADHD had increased their risk of using substances, more than individuals without ADHD. For future studies, it would be beneficial to follow a larger sample group. This way, there would be much more representational data. However, longitudinal studies are difficult to complete because some people cannot be located after so much time has passed. The results for this study showed strong correlations between the child's ADHD symptoms and later substance use. This data shows that the study is very reliable and later studies would be beneficial to discover whether positive changes are occurring for children diagnosed early with ADHD. Further research would also be beneficial regarding the study on children with ADHD who have inflated self perceptions. These explanations help others to understand why these children act the way they do in public and with their peers. As attempts are made in the future at controlling problematic social and behavioral problems, perhaps these children will be more accepted by their peers and will no longer need to inflate their self perception because the way they feel about how others seem them will become more accurate. For any future studies, it would help to include more sections of the self perception profile so that there would be more data to conclude

References

Hoza, B., Gerdes, A., Hinshaw, S., Arnold, L., Pelham, W., Molina, B., Abikoff, H., Epstein, J., Greenhill, J., Hechtman, L., Odbert, C., Swanson, J., & Wigal, T. (2004). Self-perecptions of competence in children with ADHD and comparison children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 382-391. Retrieved October 10, 2005, from [https://library.unt.edu:9443/login?url=http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pdh&an=ccp723382&scope=site].

Hoza, B., Mrug, S., Gerdes, A., Hinshaw, S., Bukowski, M., Gold, J., Kraemer, H., Pelham, W., Wigal, T., & Arnold, L. (2005). What aspects of peer relationships are impaired in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 411-423. Retrieved October 9, 2005, from [https://libproxy.library.unt.edu:9443/login?url=http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pdh&an=ccp733411&scope=site].

Molina, B., Pelham, W. (2003). Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 497-507. Retrieved October 10, 2005, from [https://libproxy.library.unt.edu:9443/login?url=http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pdh&an=abn1123497&scope=site].

Kristen Zadina is a student at the University of North Texas and a student teacher at an elementary school in the Frisco Independent School District in Frisco, Texas. She has a passion for reaching the hearts of young children and working to meet each child's individual needs. She enjoys about teaching content to students in a relevant way that gets them excited to learn.

Medications For ADHD Symptoms and the Long and Short Term Effects on Your Child's Health

The frequency of ADHD has been reported to be from four to twenty percent of school age children. A more conservative estimate would be from three to five percent, which is probably more accurate, due to improved diagnostic criteria. Clinical observation and population based surveys report a much greater occurrence in boys that in girls (10:1). Over 2 million American school aged boys take the drug methylphenidate (Ritalin). Onset is often comes about by the age of three, although diagnosis is not generally made until later when the child is in school.

Prescription Medications for ADHD

 

Have you ever given stopped to consider how many prescription medications for ADHD are currently on the market to treat the various symptoms of ADHD including hyperactivity and lack of attentiveness/focus? In addition to the most well known drugs such as Ritalin and Adderall, you may well be surprised to learn that there are numerous other prescription medications for ADHD that are effective in easing the symptoms of ADHD. The most often prescribed drug types used in ADHD treatment are long acting stimulants, short/intermediate acting stimulants, and non-stimulants. While these drugs do deal with the symptoms they also carry the risk of potential side effects, ranging from mild to serious.

 

Prescription medications for ADHD of the long acting stimulant variety consist of Adderal XR, Vyvanse, Daytrana, Concerta, Focalin XR, Metadate CD, and Ritalin LA. The effects of these long-acting stimulants have a time span of from 8 to 12 hours and this gives them the added benefit of having to be taken once a day. They are practical for children who don't wish to face the reticule and additional challenges of taking medications while attending school. Adderall XR and Ritalin LA capsules can be given orally by simply breaking open the capsules and smattering the contents onto food. This is a particularly effective method if your child struggles with swallowing capsules. Other forms of prescription medications for ADHD include Daytrana which is available in the form of a patch that children can wear for a few hours.

 

There are a number of prescription medications for ADHD that fall into the short/intermediate acting category including Ritalin, Dexedrine, Adderall, Dextrostat, and Methylin ER. Short/intermediate acting stimulants are ADHD treatment options that have been around for a number of years and have become less desirable than the long acting variety. These medicines must be taken multiple times each day because their effects are short-term in nature. The benefit of short acting Ritalin, Dexedrine and Adderall is cost (due to patent expiration). They are now widely available in generic form and have become the default low cost option.

 

The most broadly accepted choice among the non-stimulant prescription medications for ADHD is Strattera. Strattera and other non-stimulants are not as often prescribed as stimulant drugs. Children who struggle with anxiety in addition to ADHD may be helped by Strattera. Additionally doctors may prescribe Strattera if a child has a difficult time tolerating stimulant medications due to their side effects, or if stimulants simply have failed to give ADHD symptoms relief.

 

In general the side effects linked to prescription medications for ADHD are the main reason why parents and even some medical professionals have considered giving alternative herbal treatments a try. With side effects such as headaches, stomachaches, insomnia, eating disorders, social withdrawal, nausea, and vomiting, that many are considering the natural health option. When parents start to notice their child feeling lethargic, overly restricted, and losing their unique personalities it comes as no surprise to this natural health advocate that so many parents are adopting a different strategy for treating ADHD symptoms.

 

Prescription medications for ADHD which are encompassed in non-stimulant category such as Strattera have their share of side effects as well. Strattera is linked to a number of side effects including reduced desire for food, uneasy stomach, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, tiredness, mood swings, and allergic reactions. If you are serious about seeking a way to alleviate the symptoms of ADHD in your child without exposing them to the challenging side effects that can accompany prescription medications for ADHD, considering a natural, alternative remedy may be the answer.

 

Recent research studies suggest that the use of prescription medications for ADHD puts your child at a greater risk of depression as adults.  There also is evidence which suggests that prescription medications for ADHD increase the probability of substance abuse and prescription drug addiction. The short-term side effects of taking these types of prescription drugs are distressing at best, but when you take into consideration the harmful effects over a longer period of time, the thought of giving your child prescription drugs may just be too great of a risk to ignore. Luckily, there is a safe and effective alternative. High quality natural remedies have been shown to be effective, not leading to any side effects what so ever.

Thank you for taking the journey with me and reading this article. If you are interesting in alleviating the symptoms associated with prescription medications for ADHD and giving your child a head start on living a satisfying, productive life, now is a good time to start investigating alternative ADHD remedies such as homeopathy. The negative short-term and long-term side effects of ADHD prescription drugs should be reason enough to motivate you to seek out information concerning alternative treatment options. It is no secret that all parents want what is best for their child and no parent wants to put their child's health at risk. Alternatives to prescription medications for ADHD like homeopathy can give you the confidence in knowing that the approach you have chosen for the treatment of your child's ADHD is safe, effective and presents no worries about long term side effects.

R.D. Hawkins has been and continues to be an advocate for the use of natural and alternative health for the last 10 years. To learn more about homeopathic natural health please visit Purchase Remedies.com

Are Side Effects of ADHD Drugs Worse Than ADHD Symptoms?

Most ADHD drugs often leave a patient with side effects. In some circumstances, the side effects have been said to be just as bad, if not worse than the symptoms of ADHD themselves. So could this possibly be true?

Understanding ADHD Symptoms and ADHD Drug Side Effects

In order to know whether ADHD drug side effects are worse than ADHD symptoms, you need to first understand how each one differs. The symptoms of ADHD may include:

- A lack of attention to detail.

- Hyperactivity.

- Becoming fed up easily and possibly aggressive.

- Not listening attentively.

- Interrupting frequently during a conversation.

ADHD symptoms can cause a child to appear rude, aggressive and hyperactive, but it all really depends upon the severity of the condition as each child will react differently. Some children will only experience slight attention difficulties, whilst others can be overly aggressive and disruptive.

Now, the side effects of some ADHD drugs can be:

- Insomnia

- Tummy upsets

- Weight loss

- Headaches

- Mood changes

Obviously the side effect that stands out is mood changes as ADHD symptoms mainly include the mood of a child. Some medications can cause the child to become more aggressive and worse behaved than they were before they took the medication. This is to do with the medication wearing off and the effects which it has had on the body can cause a worse reaction once the drug has worn off.

Are Side Effects of ADHD Drugs a Problem?

The advantages of ADHD drugs usually far outweigh the disadvantages; however it is possible for a child taking ADHD drugs to experience serious side effects. With all ADHD medication, it is likely that at least one side effect will be felt, but usually it is a mild one which does not last for long. Whilst the side effects can be mild and there are ways to minimize them, there are times when the side effects can be so bad that they are unbearable for both the child and parent. Medications which cause further problems to the child's mood and behaviours often cause parents to feel like they are at a loss as to what to do next.

It isn't only changes in the mood that can be worrying. Insomnia can cause the child to be more irritable and problems with concentration can become worse. Headaches can also be unpleasant, as can tummy upsets too.

Whilst drugs are helpful for managing ADHD symptoms to a certain extent, they can potentially cause worse side effects than the symptoms of ADHD. In these cases, alternative ADHD treatments such as herbal remedies, behavioural therapy and special educational interventions should be sought. It is essential to consult with the doctor before stopping any ADHD medications and trying alternative treatments.

Although drug medications such as Ritalin and Adderall are commonly prescribed to manage ADHD symptoms, they are not without side effects. Check out the all natural and drug free treatments for ADHD at http://www.guidetoadhd.com/products/adhdremedies.html

Placebo Effects In Caregivers May Change Behavior Of Children With ADHD

ScienceDaily (June 30, 2009) ? Stimulant medications, such as Ritalin and Adderall, are the accepted treatment to stem hyperactivity in children with attention deficit-hyperactive disorder (ADHD) and improve their behavior.

Now a recent review of research by University at Buffalo pediatric psychologists suggests that such medication, or the assumption of medication, may produce a placebo effect -- not in the children, but in their teachers, parents or other adults who evaluate them.

A placebo effect is a positive change in symptoms or behavior after a patient receives a "fake" medication or procedure; in other words, the belief can become the medicine. In this case, the review suggested that when caregivers believed their ADHD patients were receiving ADHD medication, they tended to view those children more favorably and treat them more positively, whether or not medication was actually involved.

"The act of administering medication, or thinking a child has received medication, may induce positive expectancies in parents and teachers about the effects of that medication, which may, in turn, influence how parents and teachers evaluate and behave toward children with ADHD," said UB researcher Daniel A. Waschbusch, Ph.D., lead author of the review.

"We speculate that the perception that a child is receiving ADHD medication may bring about a shift in attitude in a teacher or caregiver. They may have a more positive view of the child, which could create a better relationship. They may praise the child more, which may induce better behavior."

Such a placebo effect in caregivers could have both good and not-so-good results, Waschbusch added. "If teachers treat children more positively if they think they are on medication, that is a good thing. But if the child's medication is increased because caregivers think it is effective, that may not be a good thing."

Waschbusch is an associate professor of psychology in the Department of Pediatrics at UB and conducts his research in UB's Center for Children and Families. The study was published in a recent issue of the Journal of Development & Behavioral Pediatrics.

Waschbusch and colleagues reviewed existing studies that evaluated whether placebos produce significant changes in children with ADHD and assessed four possible ways placebos could have an effect:

Through the child's expectations of a change -- The analysis showed that any change in children's behavior was a direct result of the medication, not the expectation.By producing changes in how caregivers perceive children with ADHD when they think they are on medication -- The researchers determined the studies suggested that this may be a viable mechanism for the placebo effect.By producing changes in how caregivers behave toward children with ADHD who they think are on medication, which in turn, could produce changes in the child -- The analysis supported this hypothesis.Placebos may operate through classical conditioning. "For example," explained Waschbusch, "if a parent routinely gives their child active medication in pill form and then sees their child's behavior immediately improve, they will likely learn to connect administering a pill with improved child behavior. This learned connection could then be generalized to administering a placebo pill."

Waschbusch said the next step in this investigation could be a study that observes parents and children interacting under three different conditions: after children received a pill with real medication, after children received a pill with fake medication (a placebo) and after children didn't receive any pill.

"Comparing these conditions would provide information about the effects of actual medication relative to just getting a placebo," he said.

William E. Pelham, Jr., Ph.D., and James Waxmonsky, M.D., from UB, and Charlotte Johnston, Ph.D., from the University of British Columbia, are co-authors on the study.

When conducting this review, the authors were supported partially by grants from institutes within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the U.S. Department of Education and the Eli Lilly Corporation.

Editor's Note: This article is not intended to provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment.

Story Source:

The above story is reprinted (with editorial adaptations by ScienceDaily staff) from materials provided by University at Buffalo.

Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

View the original article here

ADHD - Review of Literature - Effects on Development Within Family, Education, and Social Systems

Attention Deficit Hyper Activity Disorder according to Singh (2002) is a developmental disorder that is brain based and most often affects children. This developmental disorder can be characterized as a disorder in which affects ones self control; primary aspects include difficulty with attention, impulse control, and activity levels usually diagnosed prior to the age of 7yrs. of age (Willoughby, 2003).

There are primarily three sub-types of ADHD. Inattentive sub-type 1 is ADHD which those who manifest inattention without the presence of hyperactivity and impulsivity (Barkley, 2005). There is also ADHD sub-type 2 with symptomolgy related to hyperactivity and impulsivity (Barkley, 2005). Finally there is ADHD combined sub-type (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). For the purpose of my paper, I will utilize information that represents all subtypes in various degrees and the affects of these difficulties upon the individual, educational, family, and social development as well as issues of social justice and cultural issues for those children who suffer from this disorder.

Historically the modern symptoms of ADHD were first identified (Barkley 1996, Rafalovich 2001, & Stubbe 2001), by English physician George Still in 1902 (Neufeld & Foy, 2006). Rafalovich (2001), explains that in a series of historical events from 1917-1918 in North America that led to an encephalitis outbreak there was a dramatic increase in research of characteristics that are similar to modern day ADHD symptomology. Through out the early years of research there was even research and investigations into medical conditions which promoted swelling in certain aspects of the brain, which many believe led to impulsivity and hyperactivity (Stubbe, 2000). As research evolved so did the diagnostic criteria for the disorder; shaping identifiable factors believed to contribute to the causation of ADHD (Barkley, 2005). Physiologically, there seems to be less dopamine and nor-epinephrine within the brains of those with ADHD and four genes that regulate dopamine have been identified as ADHD causal agents; however a definite causal agent has not been confirmed (Barkley, 2005). Brain activity is considerably lower in the pre-frontal lobe regions in those with ADHD and there is also decrease in blood flow (Hans, Henricksen & Bruhn, 1984), (Barkley, 2005). According to Barkley (2005), psychological characteristics of ADHD are that it is about the "behavioral inhibition." These children do not benefit from what may happen later based upon what they do now; which can be compared to a "time near sightedness", (Barkley, 2005). They have difficulty identifying their past, preparing for the future, organizing, scheduling, and working independently, with social and occupational issues (Barkley, 2005). It is these difficulties when intermingled with the development of the individual that could clearly cause great difficulties especially when enrolled in formalized schooling and onward into the demands of school and adulthood.

The prevalence rates regarding the diagnosis of ADHD has been from ranges of 4 % to 18 % depending upon the community, types of populations, and areas of analysis (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). ADHD is one of the most common childhood disorders with 2.5 million children with this disorder (Barkley, 2005). Estimates show (Biederman, 1996), that nearly 6 % of boys and 1.5 % of girls have ADHD (Singh, 2002). It cost nearly 3.3 billion dollars to medically treat ADHD every year in the United States (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). Currently causation factors under consistent follow up according to Barkley (2005) include;

1. Genetics

2. Premature Birth

3. Traumatic Brain Injury

4. Spine and Brain Infections

5. Early exposure to substances during pregnancy

6. Early exposure to lead

7. Less blood flow and lower brain activity

Because ADHD is a representation of physical imperfections within the brain and actually manifests a decrease of activity in the pre-frontal lobe regions; certain treatment options with amphetamines, stimulants and non-amphetamines have been utilized to increase brain activity (Barkley, 2005). The size and anomalies within the brain have been verified and examined through many technological processes such as Positron Emission Tomography and MRI scanning (Vance & Luk, 2000). Other physical abnormalities of development according to Barkley (2005), include appearances of slight deformities including; longer than average index finger, third toe that is longer than second toe, ears that are slightly lower upon the head, no earlobes or a furrowed tongue. Up to 80% of children suffering with ADHD will continue to struggle with this disorder into adolescents and as many as 50 to 60 percent will continue to struggle into adulthood (Barkley, 2005). With the affects upon a child's school, family, and social environments a large emotional toll can be identified. Emotionally, children can feel isolated, angry, guilty, frustrated and many other emotions due to the disruption of relationships, opportunities and lack of clear decision making skills (Barkley, 2005). Many of these children can become depressed and exhibit anxiety (Barkley, 2005). Many affective behaviors include stubbornness, defiance and at times can be verbally or physically violent to others (Barkley, 2005).

According to Barkley (2005) nearly 57% of preschool children are likely to be rated as inattentive and over-reactive by their parents up to the age of four. As many as 40% according to Barkley (2005), may have these problems for up to three to six months, concerning parents and teachers. According to Lavigne, Gibbons, Christoffel, Rosenbaum and Binns (1996), however, it is estimated that 2% of preschool children truly meet the criteria for ADHD, and (Biederman, 1996), clarified that possibly 10 % of all children meet diagnostic criteria for ADHD (Singh, 2002). Barkley clearly indicates that the earlier the symptoms of ADHD appear and the length of time they last in childhood will determine the severity of its course and prognosis (Barkley, 2005). Individually there are many distressing problems for children suffering from this disorder. Some features that Barkley (2005) indicate are important to recognize as the individual child develops into school age include;

1. An emergence of high demanding ness of preschool age

2. Critical directive behavior by parents to control circumstances

3. Problems reported by preschool / formal school staff regarding child's behavior

4. Problems with learning and reading

5. Decisions to withhold a child an educational grade

6. Excessive temper tantrums / difficulty in getting child to do chores

7. Social exclusion from activities

According to Spira & Fischel (2005), within the pre-school environment at the age of 3 yrs. old, children's attention controls, and self control mechanisms begin developing. Increased self control and speech development continues from age 3yrs. old (Spira & Fischel, 2005). Self control processes continue to well develop through the age of 4yrs. old (Spira & Fischel, 2005). These processes work together allowing the child to maintain self-control and through 4 yrs. of age the child develops the ability to direct attention to relavent environmental stimuli (Spira & Fischel, 2005). Together, the maintaining of attention and control over responses emerges and of course is very important in identifying task's and working functionally within the educational environment, however; these processes indicated do not emerge for those with ADHD due to the manifestation of hyper-activity and impulsivity around the age of 3 to 4 yrs. of age, and inattention manifesting near 5 to 6 yrs. of age (Spira & Fischel, 2005). As children develop into school age and adolescents, Barkley (2005) indicated that 30 to 50 percent of children will be retained one grade during their school years. According to Vance & Luk (2000), 20 to 30 percent of children with ADHD will manifest comorbidity with learning disorders; reading, arithmetic, writing or spelling. If a child is diagnosed with ADHD and Conduct Disorder the percentages increase for a co morbid learning disorder (Vance & Luk, 2000). One theoretical position (Velting & Whitehurst, 1997), is that according to Spira and Fischel, (2005) those children with ADHD do not acquire the literacy skills necessary for early reading and learning. Furthermore, it is hypothesized that the frustration due to lack of ability perpetuates acting out behaviors consistently witnessed by school staff of children with ADHD (Spira & Fischel, 2005).

As children move through adolescents it is abundantly clear that with vast developmental changes; finding ones role identity as clarified by Eric Erickson (Berger, 2006), relational dating, peer pressure, and other demands of adolescents become extraordinarily difficult with individual difficulties of impulsiveness, hyperactivity and inattentiveness (D. Moilanen CMSW, Personal Communication, January 25, 2007). According to Gordon (2006), adolescents continue to have many difficulties especially;

1. Disorganization

2. Planning long term assignments

3. Completing homework

4. Complying with parental rules.

5. Sustaining attention and focus

Because adolescents are seeking to find a competent and healthy identity, conflicts with parental and academic systems can leave an adolescent to feel diminished, angry and frustrated before the entry into adulthood (D. Moilanen CMSW, Personal Communication, January 25, 2007).

Adulthood brings new challenges and according to Jaffe, Benedictis, Segal & Segal, (2006), the following are just a few of the challenges for adults living with ADHD;

1. Managing money

2. "Zoning out in conversations"

3. Speaking without thinking

4. Procrastination

5. Becoming easily frustrated

Eric Erickson in Berger (2006) clarifies his theory of Psycho-Social Development and indicates that as early adults we want to find intimacy or we will face isolation. It seems clear that these adults due to their disability will continue to confront difficulties with their families, social relationships, and negative individual perceptions onward into adulthood. These difficulties could place them at risk to become isolated.

The individual within their family is greatly impacted by this developmental disorder. According to Barkley (2005) ADHD is 25 to 30% acquired by heredity, and if a parent has ADHD the child is 8 to 10 times more likely at acquiring the disorder. Barkley (2005) also indicated that parents at the beginning of preschool attend and manage their child fairly well, however; parents tend to lose what they feel as control over their child the further the child develops through school. Parents can feel drained, overwhelmed and exhausted; even feeling depressed, and begin blaming themselves for their child's behavior (Barkley, 2005). Over time these difficulties can lead to perceptions by parents that may be less than positive (Maniadaki, Sonuga, Kakouros, & Karaba, 2006).

Research shows that parental perceptions within the family can clearly have implications regarding how a child is treated and the negative affects and perceptions that affect the child's developmental stages (Maniadaki et al., 2006). According to Maniadaki et al., (2006), parental perceptions do have significant impact upon children suffering from ADHD due to the likelihood of the parents not obtaining mental health services for their children; the difficulty parents had identifying the impact the child's behavior would have on the child's development; and the parents inability to identify the severity of the child's symptoms, all have dramatic affects on the child's developmental processes. Siblings can also have negative perceptions of the child's behavior, affecting the degree of support siblings bring to each other within a family. According to Gordon (2006), siblings can feel sorry for their sibling with ADHD or they can get angry and resentful. These reactions create dynamic challenges for any family and or individual dealing with ADHD. Other possible hindering perceptions by parents within the family system can be identified by comparing Erickson's, Psycho Social Developmental Perspectives (Berger, 2000). According to Erickson, children from the age of 3 yrs. old to 6 yrs. of age will develop through a series of challenges to parents, taking the "initiative" or "failing," bringing feelings of "guilt" (Berger, 2000). When the child's challenging behavior takes place however, as Camparo, Christensen, Buhrmester & Hinshaw, (1994) states, that parents may not allow these children to have the benefit of the doubt, due to past excessive behavior under normal circumstances, and the parents may see their child as an "easy target." According to the evidence, miscalculating the child's natural challenging behavior could take place and disallow the child to develop in a healthy, "guilt free" way, having significant affects on their psycho-social development. Excessive amounts of guilt can produce significant amounts of anxiety and depression (Burns, 1990). These negative processes in variable degrees can clearly lead to negative affects on social and emotional processes (Burns, 1990).

Other family processes affecting ADHD and development according to Peris & Hinshaw (2003), is that core symptoms of impulse control and inattention are primarily heritable, and parental practices do not warrant significant (Barkley, 1998; Hinshaw 1994; Johnston & Mash, 2001), causation for ADHD. However, the family interaction patterns and external influences may have a significant impact on severity and the developmental course of ADHD (Peris & Hinshaw, 2003). Furthermore, evidence suggests (Barkley, 1985; Battle & Lacey, 1972; Buhrmester, Camparo, Christensen, Gonsalez, & Hinshaw, 1992; Campbell, 1973; Cunningham & Barkley, 1979; MacDonald, 1988; Mash & Johnston, 1982; Tallmadge & Barkley, 1983) that mothers of ADHD children are less affectionate. Other disturbing findings indicate that parents can be more critically demanding and parents independently report a greater tendency to blame their ADHD child for problems they actually had with their spouses; thus proving further that family systemic patterns can play a major role in the perpetuation and affects of ADHD upon child development (Camparo et al., 1994). Of course these processes clearly affect a school-age child within their families and external systems in ways which reduce a child's self worth, confidence, and abilities to properly interact and function within their environment; proving this, Dumas & Pelletier (1999) indicated that pre-adolescents were found to have lower levels of self esteem in areas of scholastic competence, behavioral conduct, and social acceptance.

According to Barkley (2005), those with ADHD, at times do not give themselves time to evaluate their emotions objectively before a reaction, fail to separate their feelings from fact. Being able to internalize our emotions, evaluate them, and analyze them before displaying them publicly assist in self control and is difficult for those suffering from ADHD (Barkley, 2005). Those who suffer from ADHD develop a pattern of social rejection due to inappropriate interactions beginning during formalized schooling according to Barkley (2005). According to Nixon (2001), those children suffering from ADHD lack significant social skills that affect the quality of their interactions, such as; verbal & physical aggression, disruptive attempts to enter new groups, negative classroom behaviors, being quick tempered and violating the rules. Nixon (2001) presents more evidence that social cognition is clearly affected and children with ADHD can have great difficulty in making clear interpretations of their environmental interactions with others. These variables clearly lead to inhibited social contact, and a dysfunction in psycho-social development. According to Eric Erickson in Berger (2000), he clearly indicates that formalized school age children from 7 to 11 years old need to develop confidence that allow them to feel as if they have mastered "Industry" (Berger, 2000). If this stage is not mastered, they may feel inferior (Berger, 2000). How can these children who are excluded due to their ADHD manifestations of behavior, be given the chance to participate and prove themselves to resist negative aspects of "Inferiority?" As these children develop into adolescents and adults, one can hypothesize when comparing ADHD behavior and social reactions with the Erickson Psycho-Social Framework (Berger, 2000). Erickson states that adolescents attempt to find their roles in the world and if they fail, role confusion develops (Berger, 2000). Confusion for those suffering from ADHD would come easily due to their exclusion from social groups and activities (Barkley, 2005). In order for adolescents to find their role and their identity; they must interact with others and feel accepted in their participation (Berger, 2000). Further into adulthood Erickson in Berger (2000), indicates that as adult's, individuals will seek intimacy with others or become isolated. The factor of isolation relates to the extent in which those developing fear rejection and disappointment (Berger, 2000). Unfortunately, prior social experiences of those suffering from ADHD can be littered with social rejection, feelings of disappointment and unacceptance due to impulsiveness and hyperactive behaviors (Barkley, 2005). Furthermore, (Pope, Bierman, & Mumma, 1999), these authors according to Nixon (2001), also claim that hyperactivity and the inattentive / immature nature of a child's behavior with ADHD contributes greatly to interpersonal problems.

In regards to social justice and cultural issues; according to Bender (2006), African American children may be under represented and under diagnosed in regards to ADHD. Experts such as (Dr. Rahn Bailey, 2006) according to Bender (2006), claim that as science is pursuing new technological processes to diagnose and treat ADHD, cultures like the African American community are subjected to propaganda, suspicion due to past and current discrimination, and negative stereotyping regarding mental illness; thus forming cultural decisions to avoid diagnosis and treatment of ADHD. This cultural-lens, based upon discriminatory and fear based experiences with the dominant culture dis-allows ethical decisions to help and assist African American children (Bender, 2006). These decisions according to experts (Bailey, 2006), is contributing to high rates of African American children disproportionately over represented in remedial programs and disproportionate amounts of African American children over represented in the criminal justice system (Bender, 2006). The issues of classism and impoverishment can also be a topic of concern regarding those who suffer from ADHD. According to Visser & Lesesne, (2005), ADHD diagnosis among males was reported significantly more often in families with incomes below the poverty threshold than in families with incomes at or above the poverty threshold. Here again, poverty makes a clear and consistent statement of risk for our developing children.

In conclusion, I believe that ADHD seems to be an elusive, devastating, developmental disorder. This disorder for my self is so destructive because of its manifesting elements of hyperactivity, impulsivity and inattentiveness. These variables are processes that if represented to certain degrees are perfect for destroying social, educational, emotional and individual development across the life span. Because our lives are so dependent upon not just our biological construction but also our social and environmental interaction; this disorder can be serious and detrimentally disruptive. I do however believe that new technologies are hopeful in understanding this disability in greater measures. I also have gained ideas regarding the new information regarding neuro-plastisity and the changing mind based upon therapeutic thought. I feel this may be a possible frontier of research that should be a priority in better understanding how the brain can change forms; especially the pre-frontal cortex regions.

L.J. Riley Jr. BSW, LLMSW

Reference

Barkley, R. A., (2005). Taking Charge of ADHD: The Complete Authoritative Guide for

Parents. New York: The Guilford Press.

Bender, E., (May 19, 2006). Scare tactics may deter blacks from ADHD help. Psychiatric News, 41 (10) 16. Retrieved January 20, 2007 from [http://pn.psychiatry]

online.org/cgi/content/full/41/10/16.

Berger, K. S., (2001). The Developing Person: Through the Life Span. New York:

Worth Publishing.

Burns, D. D., (1999). The Feeling Good Hand Book. New York: Plume Books.

Camparo, L., Christensen, A., Buhrmester, D., & Hinshaw, S., (1994). System functioning in families with ADHD and non-ADHD sons. Personal Relationships, 1, 301-308.

Dumas, D., & Pelletier, L. (1999). Perception in hyperactive children. Maternal Child

Nursing, 24, 12-19.

Gordon, J., (2006) Ohio facts sheet; adolescents with ADHD. Retrieved January 20, 2007 from [http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/5000/5270.html].

Jaelline J., Benedictis, T., Segal, R., & Segal, J., (March 7, 2006). Adult ADD & ADHD: recognizing the symptoms and managing the effects. Retrieved on January 20, 2007 from http://www.helpguide.org/mental/adhd_add_adult_symptoms.htm.

Laigne, J.V., Gibbons, R.D., Christoffel, K.K., Arend, R., Rosenbaum, D., Binns, H., et al. (1996). Prevalence rates and correlates of psychiatric disorders among preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 204-214.

Maniadaki, K., Sonuga-Barke, E., Kakouros, E., & Karaba, R., (February, 21, 2006). Parental beliefs about the nature of ADHD behaviors and their relationship to referral intentions in preschool children. Journal Compilation of Blackwell Publishing. Retrieved on January 20, 2007 from http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2005.00512.x.

Neufeld, P., & Foy, M., (2006). Historical reflections on the ascendancy of ADHD

in North America. British Journal of Education Studies, 54, (4), 449-470.

Nixon, E., (2001). The social competence of children with Attention Deficit Hyper-

activity Disorder: a review of the literature. Child Psychology & Review of the

Literature, 6, (4), 172-177.

Peris, T. S., Hinshaw, S. P., (2003). Family dynamics and preadolescent girls with ADHD: the relationship between expressed emotion, ADHD symptomatology, and comorbid disruptive behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44 (8) 1177 - 1190.

Rafalovich, A. (2001). The conceptual history of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity

Disorder: idiocy, imbecility, encephalitis and the child deviant, 1877-1929.

Deviant Behavior: an Interdisciplinary Journal, 22, 93-115.

Singh, I., (2002). Children and society. Center for Family Research University

of Cambridge, 16, 360-367.

Spira, E. G., Fischel, J. E., (2005). The impact of preschool inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity on social and academic development: a review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46 (7), 755-773.

Stubbe, D. E. (2000). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder overview: historical

perspectives, current controversies, and future directions. Child and Psychiatric

Clinics of North America, 9 (3), 469-479.

Vance, A. L. A., Luk, E. S. L., (2000). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: current

progress and controversies. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 34,

719-730.

Visser, S. N., Lesesne, C. A., (August 31, 2005). Mental health in the United States: prevalence of diagnosis and medication treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder --- United States, 2003. Retrieved January 20, 2007 from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5434a2.htm

Willoughby, M. T., (2003). Developmental course of ADHD symptomatology during

During the transition from childhood to adolescence: a review with recommendations.

Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44 (1), 88-106.

L.J. Riley Jr. is a writer of metaphorical and childrens literature, motivational poetry and an advocate for those in need. L.J. graduated from Davison, Michigan in 1988 and joined the U.S. Army where he served as a combat veteran. College career includes; a Phi Theta Kappa graduate from Mott Community College, a Maize and Blue Scholar Award Winner from the University of Michigan Flint, a National Scholarette Nominee, a published recipient in the National Deans List, a Golden Key Honors Graduate, and a recipient of the Howard and Judy Simms Fellowship at the University of Michigan School of Social Work in Ann Arbor, Michigan. He resides in Burton, Michigan and can be contacted at Compassionpwr@juno.com